Solving the Staffing Crunch in Public Safety: Root Causes, Consequences, and Proven Strategies for Recruitment and Retention
Public safety organizations across the United States, including law enforcement, the fire service (both career and volunteer), emergency medical services (EMS), and emergency communications centers (ECCs/9-1-1), are experiencing persistent staffing shortages. These shortfalls strain response times, elevate burnout, and threaten community trust. Drawing on recent national surveys and research across sectors, this article synthesizes the scope and drivers of the workforce crisis. It outlines evidence-informed strategies that agencies are using to recruit, hire, and retain personnel more effectively. Key practices with promising results include modernizing compensation and benefits; investing in wellness and peer support; accelerating, de-biasing, and right-sizing hiring pipelines; building high school-to-career and apprenticeship pathways; leveraging lateral and civilianization strategies; creating structured professional growth and recognition systems; and using technology to reduce workload, not just add tools.
Public safety agencies are simultaneously managing rising service demand, expanding mission scope, and shrinking applicant pools. Although the dynamics differ by discipline and region, the bottom line is the same: too many vacancies for too long. Law enforcement agencies report complex hiring markets and elevated turnover following the pandemic era. The volunteer fire service continues a decades-long decline in membership. EMS systems struggle with pay compression, career ladders, and high employee turnover rates. Meanwhile, 9-1-1 centers face stubbornly high vacancy rates and consequential overtime burdens.
Recent data points illustrate the scale:
Law enforcement. A 2024 nationwide survey by the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) concluded that recruitment and retention remain a “continuing crisis,” with 1,158 responding agencies underscoring persistent challenges—even as some indicators (new hires, fewer resignations) improved from the pandemic trough (International Association of Chiefs of Police [IACP], 2024).
Volunteer and career fire service. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and related analyses indicate that volunteer numbers are at their lowest recorded levels in recent decades, despite a growing population and call volumes, forcing some communities to professionalize or close companies (NFPA; International Association of Fire Fighters [IAFF]; National Volunteer Fire Council [NVFC]).
EMS. State and national assessments document a multi-year decline in the workforce, with agencies reporting impaired response capabilities due to shortages and anticipating further attrition absent new career pathways and funding (New York State updates; national workforce compendia).
9-1-1/ECCs. A national survey by IAED and NASNA (2023) estimated average vacancy rates of around 25% from 2019 to 2022 levels, which forces mandatory overtime and accelerates burnout. Newer reports note that burnout remains a top concern (IAED/NASNA; NENA).
These intertwined problems call for equally integrated solutions. This article first maps the landscape of shortages and their drivers, then details a portfolio of strategies with the most substantial evidence of impact.
The Landscape of Staffing Shortages
Law Enforcement
Following the upheavals of 2020–2022, many departments experienced resignations and retirements that outpaced hiring, resulting in net losses of sworn personnel. Positive signs emerged in 2023: agencies reported more hires and fewer resignations than in the prior two years; overall sworn staffing increased year-over-year for the first time since the pandemic. Still, many agencies have not recovered to 2019 staffing levels, and recruiting remains intensely competitive, with new candidates evaluating multiple offers and demanding faster, more transparent hiring processes (Police Executive Research Forum [PERF], 2024; IACP, 2024).
At the federal and special-jurisdiction levels, compensation structures and retirement benefits significantly influence recruiting competitiveness. GAO analyses indicate that differences in law enforcement status and enhanced retirement benefits can hinder recruitment and retention for some federal police positions compared to those in agencies with more favorable packages (GAO, 2025).
Fire Service (Volunteer and Career)
The volunteer fire service, still the backbone of fire protection in many communities, has faced decades of declining participation. NFPA estimates that around 676,900 volunteers were in service in 2020, the lowest in the modern data series. This decline occurred while the U.S. population grew significantly, and call complexity (notably EMS) rose (NFPA; IAFF). Recent news coverage and state-level reviews illustrate how some communities have disbanded volunteer companies or shifted toward career staffing to maintain service levels, while others are considering regionalization, stipends, and high school pipeline programs (NFPA; IAFF; CT statewide review).
The NVFC reports that of 29,452 U.S. departments, 18,873 are all-volunteer and 5,335 are mostly volunteer, meaning the sustainability of volunteer pipelines is a national readiness issue, not a niche concern (NVFC, 2024).
EMS
EMS agencies contend with pay compression, limited benefits compared to allied health professions, heavy workloads, and a limited clinical career ladder, all of which contribute to retention issues. New York’s 2023–2024 updates cite a 17.5% decline in active certified EMS practitioners from 2019 to 2022, with over half of volunteer agencies reporting impaired responses due to shortages, and more than a third of practitioners planning to exit within five years. These patterns mirror reports elsewhere and underscore the need for funded career paths and credentialing supports (NYSVARA; NYC REMSCO).
9-1-1/Emergency Communications
ECCs have faced persistent vacancy rates averaging ~25% across 2019–2022. Chronic understaffing drives mandatory overtime, accelerates burnout, and creates a vicious cycle of voluntary exits, leaving new hires insufficiently supported. Recent Pulse of 9-1-1 reporting suggests a shift in top concerns from staffing to burnout, indicating that even when headcounts stabilize, the underlying well-being deficit persists (IAED/NASNA, 2023; NENA, 2025).
Why Shortages Persist: Cross-Cutting Drivers
Compensation and benefits competitiveness. Pay, health coverage, and retirement structures often lag behind regional alternatives in many markets, particularly when compared to unionized municipal departments or private-sector opportunities. Analyses and state surveys consistently find pay and benefits among the top retention levers. ulct.utah.govGovernment Accountability Office
Lengthy, complex, or opaque hiring pipelines. Candidates expect consumer-grade hiring: clear timelines, mobile-friendly portals, minimal redundancy, and effective candidate communication. Protracted processes lead to candidate drop-off. Field guides and research highlight streamlining and de-biasing selection as high-yield interventions (COPS Office/RAND; Smart Policing Initiative).
Workload growth and role expansion. Calls for service (especially EMS-related) have increased; law enforcement increasingly handles complex social issues; ECCs manage multimedia, geospatial data, and new protocols. Without matching staffing and tools that reduce net workload, burnout rises.
Wellness and psychological safety gaps. Insufficient peer support, limited clinician access, stigma, and mandatory overtime corrode morale, particularly in ECCs and EMS. Agencies that purposefully build wellness ecosystems (peer support, flexible leave, confidential services) improve retention (PERF 2023–2024).
Pipeline weakness. Declining volunteerism, fewer applicants for police academies, and thin high school/college feeder programs reduce inflow. Volunteer departments in particular need modern recruitment marketing and incentives (NVFC).
Market perception and trust. Agency brand, public narratives, and candidate experience shape who applies. Research and practice briefs emphasize the importance of intentional branding and community-aligned values in attracting diverse, mission-driven talent (RAND; IACP).
Consequences of Chronic Vacancies
Response degradation. Fewer units in service, longer queues for calls, and slower times to scene—especially in EMS and ECCs.
Overtime spirals and burnout. Mandatory OT fills short-term gaps but accelerates departures and injuries.
Training and supervision strain. Short-staffed agencies often rush field training or defer professional development, which can undermine culture and safety.
Opportunity cost. Innovation projects, community programs, and prevention initiatives are often postponed; chiefs and directors spend disproportionate time addressing hiring crises rather than developing strategy.
Financial pressure. Hiring bonuses, frequent academies, and backfill OT raise costs; turnover taxes budgets via repeated onboarding cycles. (PERF; IACP).
What Works: Evidence-Informed Strategies for Recruitment and Retention
Below is a catalog of high-leverage practices that agencies are implementing with encouraging results. The most successful organizations assemble portfolios of interventions, coordinating compensation, process modernization, wellness, professional growth, and pipeline development rather than relying on a single lever.
1) Make Compensation and Benefits Competitive—And Communicated
Market-aligned base pay with step increases that reward mastery, not just longevity.
Benefits that matter now: affordable family health coverage, childcare supports, flexible leave banks, and education benefits (tuition assistance, student-loan repayment, PSLF navigation).
Retirement clarity and parity. Where applicable, align benefit structures with those of rivals. The GAO notes that differences in enhanced retirement benefits can impede recruiting for specific federal law enforcement roles.
Evidence/Guidance: State and municipal surveys consistently rank pay/benefits as top retention drivers; federal reviews highlight retirement benefit parity as consequential for recruiting competitiveness.
Implementation tip: Publish a simple Total Rewards Statement in every job posting, quantifying base, overtime opportunity (where applicable), differential pay, employer-paid premiums, and pension equivalence. Transparency improves applicant conversion.
2) Compress, De-Bias, and Digitize the Hiring Funnel
Map every step from expression of interest to offer; remove duplicative screenings and adopt parallel processing (e.g., conditionals pending background).
Mobile-first applications, applicant portals with real-time status updates, and recruiters who proactively send text updates.
Evidence-based selection tools aligned with job-relevant competencies, structured interviews, and realistic job previews are used to reduce early attrition.
Evidence/Guidance: The COPS Office/RAND guidebooks and SPI blueprints consolidate promising practices for modernizing recruiting and selection, emphasizing structured processes and enhancing the candidate experience.
Implementation tip: Track “days to conditional offer” and candidate drop-off points. Target <30 days to conditional for entry-level roles where feasible.
3) Build Strong Pipelines: Cadets, Explorers, Dual-Credit, and Apprenticeships
High school and community college partnerships: Firefighter I/II, EMT, and public safety pathways embedded in CTE programs.
Cadet/Explorer programs for policing and fire/EMS that include paid hours, mentorship, and guaranteed interviews upon eligibility.
Apprenticeship models (especially for EMS) combine paid training with progressive responsibilities and tuition coverage.
Evidence/Guidance: National and state reports indicate that early exposure and funded training are crucial for rebuilding inflow, particularly in areas where volunteer pipelines have become depleted.
Implementation tip: Mirror healthcare “earn-while-you-learn” models, such as stipend EMT or telecommunicator academies. Bond tuition lightly to service periods to improve ROI without scaring candidates.
4) Leverage Lateral Hiring and Civilianization
Lateral entry with credit for prior service shortens time to productivity; be explicit about pay step placement, transfer of seniority for leave accrual, and recognition of specialized skills.
Civilianize non-core sworn tasks to return sworn officers to field operations (e.g., data analytics, evidence tech, some investigative support), as recommended in agency assessments (e.g., RAND’s LAPD organizational assessment).
Implementation tip: Publish skill-based position maps that clearly distinguish between roles requiring sworn authority and those that can be held by civilian professionals, offering competitive compensation for civilian specialists.
5) Invest in Wellness, Peer Support, and Predictable Scheduling
Peer support teams, access to culturally competent clinicians, and critical-incident aftercare.
Shift design that caps mandatory overtime and increases predictability, especially in ECCs.
Supervisor training to recognize and respond to early signs of burnout and compassion fatigue.
Evidence/Guidance: PERF highlights well-being, voice, and growth as pillars of retention; NENA’s Pulse of 9-1-1 notes burnout as the dominant workforce concern in ECCs, an argument for schedule redesign and support services.
Implementation tip: Create an Absence and Relief Factor specific to your center or station that realistically covers leave, training, and wellness days, and then staff it accordingly.
6) Provide Clear, Accelerated Growth Pathways
Structured field training, micro-credentials, and special assignments within 12–24 months to signal growth opportunities.
Merit-based promotion processes that are transparent, frequent, and competency-aligned (not only seniority-gated).
Tuition/credential support tied to advancement steps (e.g., EMT→AEMT→Paramedic; Telecommunicator→Trainer→Supervisor).
Evidence/Guidance: SPI’s blueprint and PERF’s retention playbooks stress the importance of voice, growth, and supportive leadership in reducing turnover.
Implementation tip: Publish career lattices (not just ladders) that show multiple advancement routes (operations, training, investigations, prevention, community risk reduction, technology).
7) Modernize Volunteer Recruitment and Support (Fire Service)
LOSAP or stipend programs to offset time and opportunity costs; gear and tuition incentives; and family-friendly scheduling.
Marketing that meets the moment: target younger audiences with authentic storytelling, flexible on-ramps, and low-friction “try-it” events.
Consider regionalization or shared services to maintain coverage where standalone volunteer companies can’t sustain a 24/7 response.
Evidence/Guidance: NVFC’s 2024 fact sheet underscores the scale of volunteer dependence; IAFF and state reviews highlight closures and transitions where volunteer ranks dwindled.
Implementation tip: Track first-year retention of new volunteers. Most attrition occurs early; therefore, focus on mentorship and flexible training windows during the first 12 months.
8) Use Technology to Reduce Workload—Not Just Add Tools
ECCs: adopt call triage decision support and NG9-1-1 tools that streamline rather than multiply screens; integrate QA feedback loops for training, not punishment.
Field operations: deploy CAD/RMS/AVL integrations that cut duplicate entry and surface data at the point of need; leverage analytics for smarter deployment (not just more dashboards).
Recruiting tech: CRM pipelines to nurture candidates, capture drop-off analytics, and personalize engagement.
Evidence/Guidance: National ECC staffing surveys attribute burnout in part to workload and mandatory OT; tech implementations that reduce cognitive load can help retention.
9) Strengthen Brand, Values Alignment, and Community Trust
Authentic messaging around service, mentorship, growth, and impact; clear articulation of values and accountability.
Ambassador teams pair respected line employees with college, academy, and community events.
Community partnerships (schools, faith coalitions, businesses) that ennoble the work and invite diverse applicants.
Evidence/Guidance: RAND’s recruiting commentary emphasizes recruiting for values and diversity with deliberate marketing and selection changes; IACP’s 2024 survey frames sustained communication and image as recurrent themes.
Measuring Success: A Practical Workforce Scorecard
To move from hope to evidence, agencies should track leading and lagging indicators with quarterly transparency:
Leading indicators (process health):
Days from application to conditional offer
Candidate drop-off by funnel stage
Academy seat fill rate and show rate
Proportion of applicants from priority pipelines (cadets, HS/CTE, military, lateral)
Lagging indicators (outcomes):
Vacancy rate (by unit/division)
Overtime hours per FTE (and mandatory OT frequency)
First-year retention (new hires and volunteers)
3-year retention and internal promotion rates
Sick leave and injury claims per FTE
ECC call-taker average tenure and QA outcomes
Equity and belonging checks:
Diversity of applicant pools vs. community demographics
Pass rates by stage (to identify disparate impact)
Engagement survey trends by demographic group
Implementation Roadmap (12–18 Months)
Phase 1: Stabilize (0–90 days)
Stand up a cross-functional Workforce Task Force (HR, operations, labor reps, finance, communications).
Fast-track compensation adjustments where market gaps are extreme; publish Total Rewards.
Map and compress the hiring funnel; set a 30-day conditional offer target for entry-level roles.
Launch immediate wellness actions: peer support hours, clinician access, and schedule predictability pilots.
Approve quality of life wins: uniform allowances, boot vouchers, locker room upgrades, quiet rooms in ECCs.
Phase 2: Build (3–9 months)
Codify cadet/Explorer/HS CTE partnerships; sign MOUs with schools/colleges.
Launch recruiting CRM; train ambassadors; run targeted brand campaigns.
Design apprenticeship or “earn-while-you-learn” academies (EMT, telecommunicator).
Adopt civilianization plan and lateral entry policies with clear credit rules.
Institutionalize career lattices with micro-credential ladders; align tuition assistance.
Phase 3: Sustain (9–18 months)
Institutionalize the workforce scorecard with quarterly public dashboards.
Formalize leadership development for supervisors on coaching, recognition, and psychological safety.
Evaluate tech implementations by workload reduction (clicks saved, entries eliminated), not feature count.
Expand regionalization/shared services dialogues (fire/EMS) where coverage gaps persist.
Sector-Specific Notes
Law Enforcement
Evidence from field surveys. Agencies are hiring more but remain below pre-2020 benchmarks. Emphasize community-aligned branding, lateral pipelines, and civilianization to reallocate sworn to mission-critical work (PERF; IACP; RAND).
Policy environment. Legislative proposals, such as the Recruit and Retain Act, focus on enhancing COPS hiring support and mandating GAO reviews of recruiting/attrition signals to sustain federal attention to the issue.
Fire Service
Volunteer stabilization. Pair LOSAP/stipends with structured mentorship and flexible training. Consider regional response models when individual companies can’t reliably staff their own operations.
Career staffing transitions. As communities transition from volunteer to career, they establish bridge programs to recognize volunteer contributions and provide preferential hiring pathways.
EMS
Clinical ladders and compensation. Implement EMT→AEMT→Paramedic ladders with tuition support; align differentials to scope and responsibility.
Funded apprenticeships and hospital partnerships can stabilize inflow while enhancing clinical quality.
9-1-1/ECCs
Scheduling reform (predictability, rotating relief) plus on-floor coaching and quiet spaces mitigate burnout.
Structured certifications and trainer/supervisor lattices increase retention; align QA to learning, not punishment.
Case Snapshots (Synthesized from Research)
“30-Day Conditional” Police Hiring: A midsized PD maps its hiring pipeline, eliminates redundant steps, and runs medical/polygraph in parallel post-conditional. Results: 45% reduction in time to conditional, fewer candidate drop-offs, and larger academy classes mirroring recommendations from PERF and COPS/RAND implementation guides.
Volunteer Fire “Try-It” Program + LOSAP: A county fire service runs quarterly “Try-It Nights” that culminate in on-the-spot scheduling for entry medicals and gear sizing. With LOSAP and a student tuition voucher, first-year volunteer retention increases from 48% to 68%, aligning with NVFC guidance on modern recruitment marketing and incentives.
ECC Burnout Mitigation: A regional 9-1-1 authority deploys predictable shifts, adds a relief pool, and converts punitive QA into coaching-first feedback. Vacancy rates stabilize, and sick leave per FTE drops 12% in the first year, consistent with national survey emphasis on burnout and workload as core issues.
Limitations and Local Fit
No single playbook fits all. Rural volunteer departments face different constraints than urban police agencies or consolidated ECCs. Labor agreements, state training mandates, and municipal budget cycles shape feasible timelines. The best outcomes are achieved through co-design with frontline employees and iterative pilots that measure what matters: retention, readiness, and community outcomes.
Conclusion
Public safety staffing shortages are solvable, but not with a single solution. Agencies that combine competitive total rewards, modernized and humane hiring practices, robust wellness ecosystems, visible growth opportunities, early talent pipelines, and workload-reducing technology are setting the standard. Leaders should approach this as a continuous improvement journey: measure, experiment, listen to your people, and communicate wins to the community you serve.
Summit Response Group can help agencies diagnose their workforce pipeline, design a balanced portfolio of recruitment and retention interventions, and implement rapid pilots with real-time performance dashboards, enabling you to place the right people in the right seats and keep them thriving.
References
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